Switching From a Trimester Academic Calendar Essay Example

Switching From a Trimester Academic Calendar Essay The trimester program has normally been implemented to help students learn in a much faster way in consideration with the time and the finances that would be involved within the studying periods that the learning process in trimester universities offer. For several years now, the industrialized and top progressed countries around the world have effectively adapted to this particular way of learning. In fact, many among the students within the said countries are able to apply their learned skills abruptly after attending school. However, there are also some risks that the education regulators face in implementing this particular time-controlling procedure of learning among students. Of course, as said earlier, in terms of time and finances, trimester certainly gains advantage, however, the questions are, are the students learning the important points of the courses that they enroll into in such a short span of time? Are the teachers able to impart to their students the most important part of the lessons that they teach? Could it be that the students need more time to learn their professions for application later on? What are the results of the said learning system in the working industry and how does it affect the performance of the national economy? These questions primarily raised the possibilities of some universities’ aiming to switch their academic calendar to semester programs. We will write a custom essay sample on Switching From a Trimester Academic Calendar specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Switching From a Trimester Academic Calendar specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Switching From a Trimester Academic Calendar specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Considering the facts mentioned above, it should then be clear that there are necessary elements that contribute to student learning procedures that need attention in pursuing the switching of academic calendars from trimester to semester program offerings of certain universities. To be able to come up with a considerably amiable plan in dealing with the situation raised herein, it is necessary to consider some certain discussions that would be presented within the paragraphs that follow. The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Trimester program The trimester program, as mentioned earlier has primarily been designed in assisting students who are preempted to be fast learners to attain a degree in college in a much faster procedure, reducing the time and the finances that they are to use to be able to finish their studies.   To expand this particular part of the discussion, the finances shall be broken down to categories that would actually show the large amount of money saved by students and their parent under a trimester program: A)   Boarding and Miscellaneous Expenses Since each trimester is reduced to three months, the expenses that the students would be paying for their dormitories or boarding houses would be reduced as well. Aside from this, the miscellaneous fees and expenses that the students spend while staying within the university would also be reduced in large amount. B)   Tuition Fee Payments Since through the trimester program, the years spent with the school days are reduced the payment for the tuition fees are then paid fast thus reducing the worries of the parents for paying   long term tuition fee rates. When it comes to studying as it is, this type of academic calendar hosts mostly academic activities and lesser extra curricular activities to help the students focus on their subjects. Most likely, students of this type of program are expected to love the pressure that they are facing in school. The consuming of time at the best possible way is what is implemented in the universities that adapt to this type of educational process. On the other hand, teachers who are under this particular system also feel the pressure of stretching the time that has been given to them to discuss their lessons with their students. Most likely, what the teachers do is to give handouts to their students, stack them up with homework and do minimal discussions in class.   Preempting that their students would do well in studying by themselves and bringing out the main idea of the lessons in the classrooms, the educators settle for simple classroom recitations to base their evaluations of the student’s capabilities of learning as well as the effectiveness of their teaching procedures. Most likely, the teachers are forced to concise their lessons into the most basic interpretations that they could make to help their students understand. In this case, they are not able to flavor up the discussion to help the students not only understand but better apply the lessons that they learn from school. By this fact, it could be noted that the teachers are limited in pursuing their passion for teaching as they are held tight by schedule of compliance to the deadlines that they are accustomed to meet. The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Semester Program Semester programs are divided in four months per academic calendar. The four months are usually aided with several extra curricular activities that are aimed to help the students loosen up form the pressures that they receive from completing their projects in school. The extra curricular activities are also aimed in finding other potentials of the students in performing their best possible abilities for the sake of the goodness of their personality development. The educators in this type of learning are actually involved in a more controllable time in their own discretion. They have more time to spend with their students in helping them cope up with the subjects especially if they are having a hard time understanding the lessons on their own. It is through this procedure of learning and teaching that the educators are able to give ample time to individual students in treating their difficulties in certain subjects. This is most especially effective in dealing with students who have a different language that the actual language being used as a medium of communication in the university. As for example, the American society holds at least 48% of its university population devoted to assisting minorities in their learning. Primarily, the students that they deal with have different languages of origin. Hence, learning using the English language as a medium may not be that easy for them to face as a challenge to their abilities of comprehending to the lessons presented to them. This does not mean that they are less intelligent than that of the English natives. However, because of the fact that they have lesser training in using the English language, they are less able to understand the gist of the lessons that are presented to them in the universities. In this setting, the educators are able to give assistance to their students at the best possible way they could as they try different alternatives to help minorities understand their lessons better. The extra time that they could use to assist students certainly allows the teachers the chance to bring the best out of their learners. Although when it comes to learning procedures, the semester program of learning is amiably considerably advantageous for the learning progress of the students, the said system of academic character adaptation is much disadvantageous when it comes to the financing of the expenses that are presumably to become a must in the lives of the students while they are staying in school. The tuition fee payments are also at some point easier to deal with in terms of the length of time allotted for them to prepare for the amount needed to be paid. What the Switching of Academic Calendar Could Do Knowing the advantages and the disadvantages of both academic calendar adaptations, it could be observed that both of them have their own leverage against the other. When it comes to the trimestral program the time and finances are given higher concern while the semestral programs on the other hand give much focus on the learning progress of the students. If the aim of education is to be considered closely, it could be seen that the main mission of educating students is to help them understand the lessons in the best way that they could in order for them to have a better application of the ideas in the actual practice in their employments later on. In this regard, the semestral program implication appears to be much practical. Hence, the pursuance of switching of the trimester program to the semester program is given closer concern and focus by some educational administrators. (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚   In terms of Budget and Financial Issues From a trimestral setting, the parents and the students themselves would have a better control of their budget since the length of time given for them to complete the payment responsibilities that they have to the universities. Although in terms of boarding expenses the payment may not be that low, the adjustment of the activities that the students engage with may do the trick of reducing and balancing both time and budget that are allotted for the time of learning that they are supposed to complete. (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚   Teacher or Educator Adjustments Trimestral teachers are to be given a lengthened chance of reevaluating their teaching lesson plans thus be able to recreate their system in assisting the students individually in their studies. They could then a lot more time in discussing their lessons in class rather than just sending the works to their students for home completion. Recitation activities are still applicable however; the time could be extended as length of days that certain activities and lessons are to be hosted by the educators to help their students comprehend with the gist ideas of the lessons. (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚   Student Learning Capabilities and Pressures The time that is given for students to have ample chance of learning their lessons could actually be turned into a more productive time that would assist the students develop several other skills that they could apply in their jobs later on. Most likely, this situation helps them asses themselves as to how much pressure they are able to tolerate and still perform at their best. For those students who belong with the minority of the population could then be assisted in understanding their lessons better through continuous practice of the usage of the language. The lack of too much pressure in accepting all the necessary lessons could be noted as a way by which the students are given leeway in practicing the knowledge that they are able to gain form the universities. Conclusion From this discussion, it could be noted that trimester and semester programs are able to get the best out the students in several ways of consideration. Trimestral program adaptation could be applied in universities that are giving educational assistance to the above average intellect students. This is primary because of the fact that the pressures of learning in this particular procedure of academic calendar setting could cause the minorities a hardship in comprehending with the major points of the lessons that they are supposed to be learning from their educators. In applying the semester program, the educators are able to give attention to each individual student’s progress in learning their lessons. The time that they could spend in the learning processes would indeed allow them to find the best ways by which they could apply their lessons in actual procedures of practice in the future. References: Washington State Higher Education Coordinating Board. (2000). WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY ACADEMIC CALENDAR Semesters vs. Quarters. http://www.hecb.wa.gov/Docs/reports/WSUcalendar12-2000.pdf. (June 2, 2007). U.S. Office of Education Circular No. 248, November 15, 1948. DH News Service, Bangalore. (2007). No word yet on timing, semester system. CITY SCHOOLS REOPEN, TEACHERS IN DARK OVER GOVT PROPOSALS. http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/May292007/national200705294376.asp?section=frontpagenews. (June 2, 2007).

Cognitive Grammar - Definition and Discussion

Cognitive Grammar - Definition and Discussion Cognitive grammar is a  usage-based approach to grammar that emphasizes symbolic and semantic definitions of theoretical concepts that have traditionally been analyzed as purely syntactic.Cognitive grammar is associated with wider movements in contemporary language studies, especially cognitive linguistics  and functionalism. The term cognitive grammar was introduced by American linguist Ronald Langacker in his two-volume study Foundations of Cognitive Grammar (Stanford University Press, 1987/1991). Observations Portraying grammar as a purely formal system is not just wrong but wrong-headed. I will argue, instead, that grammar is meaningful. This is so in two respects. For one thing, the elements of grammar- like vocabulary items- have meanings in their own right. Additionally, grammar allows us to construct and symbolize the more elaborate meanings of complex expressions (like phrases, clauses, and sentences). It is thus an essential aspect of the conceptual apparatus through which we apprehend and engage the world.(Ronald W. Langacker, Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2008)Symbolic AssociationsCognitive grammar . . . chiefly departs from traditional theories of language in its contention that the way in which we produce and process language is determined not by the rules of syntax but by the symbols evoked by linguistic units. These linguistic units include morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences and whole texts, all of which are deemed inherently sym bolic in nature. The way in which we join linguistic units together is also symbolic rather than rule-driven because grammar is itself meaningful   (Langacker 2008a: 4). In claiming a direct symbolic association between linguistic form (what it terms phonological structure) and semantic structure, Cognitive Grammar denies the need for an organizational system to mediate between the phonological and semantic structures (i.e. syntax).(Clara Neary, Profiling the Flight of The Windhover. (Cognitive Grammar in Literature, ed. by  Chloe Harrison et al. John Benjamins, 2014)​ Assumptions of Cognitive GrammarA Cognitive Grammar is based on the following assumptions... .:The grammar of a language is part of human cognition and interacts with other cognitive faculties, especially with perception, attention, and memory. . . .The grammar of a language reflects and presents generalizations about phenomena in the world as its speakers experience them. . . .Forms of grammar are, like lexical items, meaningful and never empty or meaningless, as often assumed in purely structural models of grammar.The grammar of a language represents the whole of a native speakers knowledge of both the lexical categories and the grammatical structures of her language.The grammar of a language is usage-based in that it provides speakers with a variety of structural options to present their view of a given scene.(G. Radden and R. Dirven, Cognitive English Grammar. John Benjamins, 2007)Langackers  Four PrinciplesA primary commitment to Cognitive Grammar is . . . to provide an optima l set of constructs for explicitly describing the linguistic structure. Its formulation has been guided throughout by a number of principles thought to be helpful in achieving such optimality. The first principle . . . is that functional considerations should inform the process from the outset and be reflected in the frameworks architecture and descriptive apparatus. Because the functions of language involve the manipulation and symbolization of conceptual structures, a second principle is the need to characterize such structures at a reasonable level of explicit detail and technical precision. To be revealing, however, descriptions must be natural and appropriate. Thus, a third principle is that language and languages have to be described in their own terms, without the imposition of artificial boundaries or Procrustean modes of analysis based on conventional wisdom. As a corollary, formalization is not to be considered an end in itself, but must rather be assessed for its utility at a given stage of an investigation. That no attempt has yet been made to formalize Cognitive Grammar reflects the judgment that the cost of the requisite simplifications and distortions would greatly outweigh any putative benefits. Finally, a fourth principle is that claims about language should be broadly compatible with secure findings of related disciplines (e.g., cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and evolutionary biology). Nevertheless, the claims and descriptions of Cognitive Grammar are all supported by specifically linguistic considerations.(Ronald W. Langacker, Cognitive Grammar.  The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. by  Dirk Geeraerts and Herbert Cuyckens. Oxford University Press, 2007)

Critical evaluation of the international Accounting Standard and Essay

Critical evaluation of the international Accounting Standard and Financial Reporting Standard that applied on BRITIVC plc - Essay Example investors and lenders. This report specifically aims at the critical evaluation of the key financial information provided in the financial statements of Britvic Plc. Those key items are 1) Revenues, 2) Property, Plant and Equipment, 3) Earnings per share. These key items are evaluated in the light of their relevant accounting standards as to check whether these areas are consistent with providing the useful information to the lenders and investors. The following discussion and evaluation highlights these specific areas on separate basis so that each individual key accounting area can be judged regarding the achievement of IAS and IFRS objective (IFRS and IAS Summaries- English, 2011-2012). IAS 18 covers revenue recognition for the preparation of financial statements. The major criterion for recognizing the revenues is the transfer of risks and rewards between the parties to the sales contract. Seller transfers the risks associated with the selling item in response to a reward received from the buyer. When risks and rewards are transferred to the concerned parties, the revenues are deemed to be recognized by the selling entity. As far as the disclosure requirements of IAS 18 are concerned, minimal disclosure are required such as the total revenue generated during the current period along with comparative figure of the last year (BDO, n.d.). If the financial statements of Britvic Plc. are accounted for the year 2012, it can be clearly observed from the statement of comprehensive income that the company has generated the revenues of around  £1,256 million. In the previous year, the company had upward revenues of around  £1,290 million. From the perspective of disclosure requirements, the company has provided the appropriate disclosure requirements in the statement of comprehensive income (Annual Report Britvic Plc., 2012). Besides this disclosure requirement of IAS 18, certain other requirements relating

Art History- Comparing Renaissance and Baroque art Essay

Art History- Comparing Renaissance and Baroque art - Essay Example The Virgin with the Canon van der Paele is an outstanding painting of Virgin Mary. In the painting, Jesus is sitting on Mary’s lap. Mary is not the only person represented in this painting, there are other significant persons. An interesting aspect of the painting is the articulate and accurate coloration. In general, the painting is more real, representative of life and provides immense detail. On the other hand, The Swing (1766) is a depiction of has guarding statues of the garden swing. In this drawing, the colors are muter and it is mainly characterized with some kind of darkness and shadowy effect. However, the darkness is non-sinister, but rather is a result of illumination effect of the trees that provide privacy to the two lovers in the painting. There is therefore a bright effect emanating from the tree breaks, from where the sun’s rays maneuvers its way to illuminate the woman who is wearing a pink dress which is one of the bright spots in the picture. The two paintings bear some level of similarity. Firstly, both represent a scene characterized by multiple persons. Van Eyck’s painting shows immense detail with regard to painting backgrounds just as much as is the case in Fragonard painting (Gardner and Kleiner 571). However, as much as the details in Fragonard paintings are substantial, they are much smaller and rather it is the leaves and trees that take much of the focus instead of the swinging lady. There is also some level of contrast in the paintings. While van Eyck’s painting is more serious, more religious and sacred.

Criminal Justice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Criminal Justice - Assignment Example in â€Å"Friend or Foe†). Despite the continuous adoption of this legal rule, I do agree with the contention of Edwin Meese. â€Å"The rule endangers innocent victims while letting criminals escape† (â€Å"Friend or Foe†). Due to this principle, illegal weapons which are considered as illegally confiscated by police authorities because it violates the prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures are considered as inadmissible in evidence. Hence, the illegal articles will not be included in the criminal proceeding which if actually admitted will surely convict the accused or punish the individual who is in possession of an illegal item. In this sense, the accused is freed from any liability with regard to that illegal item leaving the victim hopeless and frustrated. Moreover, this rule can encourage more law violators believing that they will not be punished by owning that illegal item as long as it is not seized legally. The fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine is not helpful per

The Discourse And Discourse Analysis

The Discourse And Discourse Analysis The chapter elaborates the theoretical frameworks used in the present study. It covers the elaboration of mass media, fear and the theories of representation. This chapter also explains Discourse Analysis, the concept of Critical Discourse Analysis, Van Leeuwens framework-discourse as a recontextualization of social practice which is followed by Van Leeuwens notion of representing social actors and action (2008) and Kress and Van Leeuwens theory on Reading Image (2006). 2.1 Mass Media Mass media have become an important part of human life. People can not imagine how they would live without media, such as television, newspaper, magazine, or internet. Mass media today cover global phenomenon such as the programs on health risks, political elections, royal weddings, armed conflict, financial crises, and natural or man-made disaster. However, mass media are not free from ideology (ibid). Any reality (this may include fear) showed in mass media possibly adopts the perspective of dominant groups or the owner of mass media (Van Dijk, 1995). Thus, the following will discuss the concept of fear and mass media with CDA as the tools of analysis to unearth the ideology in particular online news (Kompas.com Detik.com). Here, CDA is very useful to discover hidden messages behind news as part of media discourse (Van Dijk, 1995). The construction of fear in news could also be revealed by employing CDA as the tool of analysis. To start the investigation of fear in the Indonesia online news, the concept of fear and mass media is discussed in the following section. 2.2 Mass Media and Fear Mass media also have potential to arouse and shape emotions locally as well as globally (Doveling, Scheve, Konjin, 2010).The examples are falling in love with one of the characters in a film, shedding tears in a dramatic event, shouting out loud to soccer player who fails to score, and many more. Those examples about specific characters and events are exclusively known via the media, although the audiences or the readers of the media have never met the characters or experienced the events yet. However, the audiences are moved by these examples emotionally. It is the reason why mass media have the potential to play with emotions while in fact nothing real needs to be going on. So, mass media are technically construed means to convey messages, yet they do not have emotions themselves (Doveling, Scheve, Konjin, 2010). Fear as noun is defined as an unpleasant often strong emotion caused by anticipation or awareness of danger; an instance of this emotion; a state marked by this emotion; anxious concern; profound reverence and awe especially toward God and reason for alarm (Merriam Webster Online Dictionary, 2012). Meanwhile, fear can also be regarded as a verb (transitive and intransitive). Merriam Webster Dictionary defines fear as follow: Transitive verb archaic : frighten archaic : to feel fear in (oneself) to have a reverential awe of to be afraid of : expect with alarm Intransitive verb to be afraid or apprehensive Fear pervades in mass media because mass media play a large role in shaping public agendas by influencing what people think about (Shaw and McCombs 1977 cited from Altheide et all, 1999). discourse of fear. It is defined as the pervasive communication, symbolic awareness and expectation that danger and risk are the central feature of the effective environment (Altheide et all, 1999) Altheide et all (1999) elaborate that there are three objects to help discovering fear in mass media. The objects are frame, theme, and discourse. The third object to reveal fear in mass media is through discourse. The investigation of construction fear in discourse is the focus in this study. Thus, the theory of representation which is a departing point to explain discourse and CDA is described in the next part. 2.3. Representation Representation as uncountable noun is the way that someone or something is shown or described while as a countable noun; while as countable noun, representation is understood as a sign, picture, or model of something (Cambridge Advance Learners dictionary 3rd Edition). The same view is also proposed by Longman Advanced America Dictionary which describes representation (countable or uncountable noun) as a way of showing or describing something in art, literature, newspaper, television, etc. Understanding representation is important since this theory can reveal how fear is represented in the online news media. Stuart Halls theory of representation is one of the prominent theories of representation. Hall does not define representation as just a way something described or shown but he goes deeper by defining representation as the production of meaning through language (Hall. 1997 p.1). He argues that language is able to construct meaning since it operates in operates as representational system (Hall, 1997 p.1). In representational system (language), signs are used to symbolize or represent objects, people, or events in real world (Hall, 1997). Moreover, signs can also represent imaginary, fantasy or abstract things (Hall, 1997 p.17), such as the concept of fear. Furthermore, there are two general models of representation; Ferdinand De Saussures and Michael Foucaults approaches to representation. Saussures model is semiotic model that can be defined as the link between the forms of expression used by language (signifier) and the mental concept with them (signified) (Hall, 1997). The second model is Foucaults model to representation. In contrast with Saussures model, Foucault (in Hall 1997 p.44) sees discourse as the system of representation (not language). He argues that meaning and meaningful practices are constructed in discourse, so it implies that nothing meaningful outside discourse (Foucault in Hall, 1997 p.44). Foucault is, then, defined discourse as a way of representing the knowledge about a particular topic at a particular historical monument. From this definition, it can be inferred that Foucault model of representation is historically and context specific where certain power and ideology are involved in producing discourse and knowledge. So far, the discussion of representation has elaborated how meaning is constructed. Two views are raised; meaning is constructed in Language (Saussures model of representation) or Discourse (Foucaults model of representation). This study, then, employs Foucaults model of representation (in Hall, 1997) since this model is more relevant to the tool of analysis of the study which is Critical Discourse Analysis (Van Leeuwens Framework, 2008). The model is chosen since the model of representation is more attached to the concept of knowledge, power, and ideology which are also the main notions of CDA. In order to enrich the understanding of discourse and critical discourses analysis, the elaboration of these concepts is explained in the following section. 2.4. Discourse and Discourse Analysis Discourse often means as an extended stretch of connected speech or writing a text (Van Leeuwen in Wodak and Meyer, 2009). However, some scholars develop a more profound definition of discourse; one of them is Foucault who defines discourses as socially constructed way of knowing some aspect of reality which can be drawn upon when that aspect of reality has to be represented. (Foucault, 1977 cited in Wodak and Meyer, 2009). From different point of view, Fairclough defines discourse as the representation of the world (Fairclough, 2003:124). It involves the representation of processes, relations and structures of the material worlds, the mental world of thought, feelings, beliefs, and the social world (Fairclough, 2003:124). He also distinguished discourse from text since discourse is used to refer to the whole process of social interaction while text is only the output of that process (Fairclough, 1989:24). These two scholars definitions of discourse give implication that discourse is not a just mere connected speech or writing. The notion of discourse raises the concept of reality, knowledge and power (Foucalt 1977 in Wodak and Meyer 2009) and the concept of world representation and social interaction (Fairclough 1989 and 2003). The discussion of discourse raises the question of how discourse is analyzed. Dicourse Analysis is, then, the process of analysis which aims to reveal the relationship between text and the elements of social practice in the society (Paltridge, 2006:2). Zellig Harris is first scholar who introduced the term Discourse Analysis in 1952. He defines Discourse Analysis as a way of analyzing connected speech and writing (Paltridge, 2006:2). Harriss study deals with the examination of language beyond the level of sentence and the investigation of relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic behavior. Afterward, the development of Discourse Analysis influences some areas of applied language study. One of these areas is Critical Discourse Analysis (abbreviated as CDA). CDA was developed based on the fact that the values which underlie texts are often hidden (Paltridge, 2006). The critical approach to Discourse Analysis will help reveal some of these hidden values. Corresponding to this, Fairclough (1992) also states that CDA focuses on how a discourse is produced in relation to power and ideology as well as the effects of the discourse on social identities, relations, knowledge and beliefs. Therefore, this study is geared toward investigating the construction of fear in online news media from discourse perspective (Altheide, 1999). The study is aim to reveal what the construction of fear signifies. These significations may lead to the relation of power, hidden values and ideology in the construction of fear. These significations are also the main notions of CDA. Thus, the more detailed explanation of CDA is explained in the following section. 2.5. Critical Discourse Analysis Paltridge (2006) elaborates Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as the examination of the use of discourse in relation to its socio-cultural phenomena. It examines the way language is used in the discourse and social and cultural situation where it occurs. Distinctively, Van Dijk explains that CDA is a type of discourse analysis which studies the way social power abuse, dominance and inequality are enacted, reproduced and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context. (2008:85). Thus, it can be inferred that one of main purposes of CDA is to try to understand, demonstrate, and resist social inequality. Furthermore, Fairclough and Wodak elucidate eight main principles of CDA. First, CDA addresses social problems by observing the linguistic forms. The concept of power relations are negotiated and performed through discourse is the second principle. The next one is that discourse represents society and culture. Ideologies are produced and reflected in the use of discourse is the fourth principle. The fifth one regards discourse as historical which means that a discourse cannot be separated from discourses before it. The concept of CDA mediates text and society is the sixth principle. Next Principle, CDA is interpretative and explanatory. Last principle, discourse is a form of social action (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997, cited in Van Dijk, 2008:86). These eight main principles of CDA construct the basis for CDAs aim which is to gain a good understanding of how language functions in constituting or transferring knowledge or in exercising power (Wodak and Meyer, 2009). In order to achieve this understanding, CDA requires an interdisciplinary approach. Thus, CDA is not attempted to provide one specific theory. Researches in CDA are varied and come from different theoretical backgrounds. They are also concerned with different data as well as different methodologies. Theo Van Leeuwen is one of the CDA researchers who contributes his approach to CDA. His framework of discourse as the recontextualization of social practice is greatly affected by four important notions from Bernstein, Foucault, Halliday, and Martin (Van Leeuwen, 2008). Thus, the present study employs Van Leeuwens framework of discourse as the recontextualization of social practice (2008) as the main tool of analysis. This study focuses on how social actors and social actions are represented in the construction of fear. Van Leeuwens framework of CDA is also used to reveal what the construction of fear signifies (the power relation, hidden values and ideologies). The elaboration of Van Leeuwens approach to CDA is, then, presented in the next section. 2.6. Van Leeuwens Framework: Discourse as the Recontextualization of Social Practice Van Leeuwen (2008) explains discourse as outlines for the interpretation of reality. His framework on discourse presents methods for reconstructing these outlines through text analysis. It is based on four important notions from four theorists. It is built on Bernsteins concept of recontextualization, Hallidays theory of Transitivity, Foucaults theory of discourse, and Martins theory of activity sequences. (Van Leeuwen, 2008). First, the frameworks based on Bernstein concept of representation (1996). Bernstein defines recontextualization as one of the three fields of pedagogic devices (Bernstein, 1996, cited in Van Leeuwen 2008). It lies between the field of knowledge production and reproduction. The field production of new knowledge takes place in higher education institutions. The recontextualization of knowledge takes place in institutions which interpret education policies into curriculum. Furthermore, the reproduction of knowledge mostly takes place in schools. Bernstein argues that recontextualization regulates rule for delocating a discourse, for relocating it, for refocusing it. (cited in Van Leeuwen, 2008), Thus, it can be inferred that from Bernsteins perpective, recontextualization is shifted from its original position of production to another position where it is changed as it is related to other discourses. However, Van Leeuwen employs this concept in a more general sense. He also associates it to the theory of discourse constructed by Foucault. In Foucaults sense, discourse is a socially constructed knowledge of some social practices (Foucault, 1977, cited in Van Leeuwen, 2008:6). At this point, discourses are seen as the resource of representing social practices in text. It implies that texts can be used to reconstruct discourses. Subsequently, Van Leeuwens framework is also based on Martins concepts of the field of discourse, using lexical cohesion analysis to construct activity sequences-sequences of represented activity (Cited in Van Leeuwen, 2008:5). In building his framework, Van Leeuwen is motivated by the work of Martin concerning the represented activities, roles, setting, etc. Although Martins example is in the form of procedural text, Van Leeuwen argues that all texts should be interpreted as representation of social practices that consist of series of represented activities (van Leeuwen, 2008). 2.7. Representing Social Actors Theo Van Leeuwen (2008) has built an analysis framework regarding the representations of social actors in a text. The following section explains these categories further. 2.7.1. Inclusion and Exclusion In a text, not all of the social actors are presented directly for the readers to see; sometimes the readers have to infer them in one or two places, and sometimes the social actors are not at all present in the text. Whenever the social actors are present in a text, it is called inclusion; and whenever they are absent, it is called exclusion (Van Leeuwen , 2008). Excluded social actors can either be backgrounded or suppressed. If they are backgrounded, it means they can still be referred to somewhere in the text. However if the social actors are suppressed, it means they are not mentioned at all in the text. If the social actors are included in the text, we shall then see their role allocation, whether they are playing an active or passive role, whether they are presented generically or specifically, presented as an individual or as belong in a group, presented as unspecified or specified, referred to by name or category, referred to personally or impersonally, or whether they appear in more than one social practice at the same time (Van Leeuwen , 2008). Therefore, one way to reveal the construction of fear is to see how actors are represented in the discourse. It is important to reveal the representation of social actors since actors play vital role in creating meaning (fear) (Hall 1997, Altheide 1997, Bell, 2003). The exclusion and inclusion of the social actors in the discourse is able to reveal the relation of power and hidden values and ideology in the construction of fear in online news. The following figure is the network of representing social actor. Nomination Inclusionionion Exclusion ionion Supression Backgrounding ionion Activation ionion Passivationionion Participationionion Circumstatialization ionion Possesivation Impersonalization ionion Personalization ionion Determination Indetermination Genericization Specificization Abstraction Objectivation Individualization Assimilation Association Disassociation Differentiation Indifferentiation Categorizationh Single Determination Overdetermination Collectivization Aggregation Functionalization Identification Appraisement Formalization Informalization Titulation Detitulation Semiformalization Inversion Symbolization Connotation Distillation Classification Rel. Iden Physical Iden. Honorification Affiliation Anachronim Deviation FIGURE 1 Social Actor Network (Van Leeuwen, 2008:52) 2.7.2. Role Allocation Role Allocation in Van Leeuwens Framework of representing social actors is the role give to the actor to play in the representation (Van Leeuwen, 2008). The first role allocation is that social actors in a text can either be activated or passivated. Activation and passivation of the social actors can be realized through participation, circumstantialisation and possessivation. When social actors participate in a given activity, participation occurs. While, Circumstantialisation happens when social actors are put within the circumstance. Furthermore, Possessivation happens when social actors become the possession of others (Van Leeuwen 2008). When social actors are passivated, they can either be subjected or beneficialised. Subjected social actors are treated as objects in the representation, while beneficialised social actors are the ones who benefits, either positively or negatively, from the action (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7.3. Genericisation and Specification Talking about genericisation and specification means talking about whether the social actors are represented as classes, or as specific individuals which can be identified. Genericisation can be realized through the plural without article, the singular with the definite article, or mass nouns (a group of participants). Meanwhile specification can be realized through specific nouns or using numerative before the noun. In addition, mass nouns can also signify specification if the tense is not present tense (Van Leeuwen , 2008) 2.7.4. Assimilation and Individualisation The third distinction of role allocation is assimilation and individualization. This role allocation concern about whether the social actors are represented as groups or individuals. The difference lies in the singular and plural form of the social actors. Genericisation and specification can represent social actors either in singular or plural form. Meanwhile, assimilation represents social actors as groups, represents them in plural form. Individualization, The reference of social actors as individuals is called Individualization. Individulaized social actors always be represented them in singular form. Furthermore, assimilation consists of two types; aggregation and collectivization. Aggregation is understood as quantifying groups of participants and treats them as statistics, while collectivization does not. Aggregation is also realized by the presence of definite or indefinite quantifiers which either functions as the numerative or as the head of nominal group. Meanwhile, Collectivization can be realized by a mass noun or a noun denoting a group of people (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7.5. Association and Dissociation A further distinction of the social actor is association and disassociation. It deals when social actors or a group of social actors represented in a text as forming a group, however the group is never labeled. Association can be realized through parataxis, circumstance of accompaniment, possessive pronouns and possessive attributive clauses with verbs such as have and belong (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7.6. Indetermination and Differentiation The notion of indetermination and differentiation deals with whether or not social actors are represented as unspecified or specified. Indetermination, which anonymizes social actors, can be realized through indefinite pronouns and generalized exophoric reference, while differentiation can be realized through specific adjectives (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7.7. Nomination and Categorization Nomination occurs when social actors are represented based on their unique identities, while categorization occurs when they are represented based on their identities and functions which they share with others. Nomination is generally realized by proper noun, in the form of formal (surname only, with or without honorifics), semiformal (given name and surname) or informal (given name only) (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7.8. Functionalization and Identification When social actors are categorized, they can either be represented by means of functionalization or identification. Functionalization occurs when social actors are represented based on what they do; or blatantly put, what they function as, while identification occurs when social actors are represented based on what they are. (Van Leeuwen , 2008). Functionalization is usually realized in one of the following ways: first by a noun formed from verb by adding suffixes, such as -er in interviewer; second by a noun denoting a place or tool closely associated with an activity through suffixes, such as -ist in violist; and third by compounding nouns denoting places or tools closely related with an activity and highly generalized categorizations, such as compounding swords and man into swordsman. In addition, identification has three types, namely classification, relational identification and physical identification. Classification happens when social actors are represented based on their class, age, gender, race, religion, etc. Relational identification happens when social actors are represented based on their relationship or kinship with others. It can be realized by possessive pronoun, postmodifying phrase, or genitive. Physical identification happens when social actors are represented based on their physical characteristics (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7.9. Impersonalisation and Personalisation Impersonalisation and personalization deal with whether social actors are represented as human beings or not. All of the aforementioned categories of social actors representation fall into personalization, because all of them represent social actors as having the quality of human beings. On the other hand,impersonalisation does not represent social actors as having the quality of human beings. Moreover, impersonalisation is divided into two types, namely abstraction and objectivation. Abstraction occurs when social actors are represented by means of quality assign to them, and objectivation occurs when social actors are represented by a place or thing closely related either with the person or with the action in which they are engaged. If they are represented by a place, it is called spatialization; if they are represented by their utterance, what they say or what they write, it is called utterance autonomization; if they are represented by the instrument or tool they use for action, it is called instrumentialization; and if they are represented by a part of their body, it is called somatization. In addition, Leeuwen noted that impersonalisation can background the identity and/or role of social actors, can lend impersonal authority or force to an activity or quality of a social actor, and can add positive or negative connotations to an activity or utterance of a social actor. Impersonalizing social actors takes the audiences focus or attention away from the social actors themselves, emphasizing on the abstract concept, quality or object that is assigned to them (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7.10. Overdetermination Overdetermination occurs when social actors are represented as participating, at the same time, in more than one social practice. It is one of the ways in which texts can legitimize practices. There are four kinds of overdetermination, namely inversion, symbolization, connotation and distillation (Van Leeuwen , 2008). Inversion happens when social actors are connected to two practices which are each others opposite. A well-known example for this, as mentioned by Leeuwen as well, is The Flintstones. The Flintstones family is depicted as people from pre-historic era, as seen from their clothes that are made of animals hides and their house that is made from rocks and stones, yet they do activities that are common in modern era, like watching television, playing bowling and hanging out in a night club. Symbolization happens when fictional social actors stand for actors in non-fictional social practices. Distillation is the combination of generalization and abstraction. It connects social actors to several social practices by abstracting the same feature from social actors involved in these several practices (Van Leeuwen , 2008). This present study utilizes this role allocation in the chosen online news article as the main analysis of the social actor. As mentioned before, the analysis of role allocation aims to reveal how representations of the social actors are allocated in the discourse. This allocation, then, reveals the power relation, hidden values and ideologies in representing social actors in the discourse of fear. 2.8. Representing Social Action The main question that encourages Van Leeuwen in constructing the social action network is that What are the ways in which social action can be represented in English discourse? (2008:3). He believes that the representational choices of actions in the discourse contain meanings that could help to understand the whole discourse. The next section presents the main ways in which social action can be transformed in a discourse (Van Leeuwen , 2008). 2.7 Van Leeuwens Social Action Network This social action network presents the ways in which actions and reactions can be represented in discourse. Figure 1 shows the social action network that is developed by Van Leeuwen. Social Action Reaction Action Activation Deactivation Agentialization Deagentialization Abstraction Concretization Unspecified Cognitive Affective Perceptive Material Transactive Nontransactive Interactive Instrumental Semiotic Behavioral Nonbehavioral Single Determination Overdetermination Form specification Topic specification Rendition Quotation Objectivation Descriptivization Generalization Distillation Eventuation Existentialization Naturalization Symbolization Inversion FIGURE 2. The Social Action Network: The Representation of Actions and Reactions (Van Leeuwen, 2008:73) 2.9.1 Reactions Reactions is understood as the emotions and attitudes toward belong to these actions of the social actors (Van Leeuwen, 2008). Typically, a discourse presents the social actions along with the reactions following them. The way to differentiate the reactions from actions grammatically is by using the criteria in Hallidays transitivity theory of mental processes. According to Van Leeuwen (2008), there are four conditions of mental processes which distinct them from the processes that realizing actions (such as, material, behavioral, or verbal processes). Van Leeuwens argument in mental process is based on Hallidays theory of transitivity (`967-1968, 1985). He argues that the mental processes cannot be probed by a do question. Second, mental processes use the simple present form while material, behavioral, and verbal processes take the progressive present form. Third, the participant of a mental process, the senser, must be a human or is treated as competent of human mental processes. Conclusively, the object of the mental processes can be realized by a clause as well as by a nominal group. (Van Leeuwen, 2008 These four criteria, however in Van Leeuwens view, are not always fully adequate to identify the actions and reactions in the actual text (2008). It is because the identification of actions and reactions is bounded by the grammar of the clause and fails to provide recognition criteria for actions and reactions in the text that use other linguistic level such as nominal group. Another problem is that many reactions are not represented dynamically by mental process clause, for instance, they feared . They can also be represented statically by descriptive clause such as they were afraid. (Van Leeuwen, 2008:57). Halliday solves those problems through his theory of grammatical metaphor (1985). It covers the idea that the concept of mental process is realized literally when it is realized by the grammatical category of mental process; it is realized metaphorically when it is realized in other ways. For examples, it is realized by a static descriptive clause or by elements of nominal group. Those two ways of representing reactions-metaphorically or literally-suggest that there are different metaphors available for representing the reactions. Reactions can be formulated in a number of ways. They can be unspecified through verbs like react and respond denoting a reaction directly. They can also be specified; they are represented as particular types of reactions. In accordance to these, Halliday (cited in Eggins, 2004) differentiates three types of reactions: cognitive (verbs of thinking, knowing, understanding, etc.); affective (verbs of liking, fearing, etc.), and perceptive (verbs of seeing, hearing, perceiving, etc.). 2.9.2 Mat

An Effective, Professional Teacher Essay -- Professionalism and Ethics

Introduction The statement ‘Teaching – reflections, questions, decisions’ sums up what it means to be an effective teacher. Teachers are constantly making decisions about professionalism and ethics, teaching strategies, classroom management, and how to keep their students motivated. These decisions can have a major impact on student learning and how effective they are as teachers. Questioning is an essential—and one of the most important—instructional skills that a teacher can possess. Teachers need to be able to ask the appropriate types and levels of questions, such as the high and low order questions based on Bloom’s taxonomy, as well as being skilled in responding to students answers. Teachers also need to be constantly evaluating and reflecting on the curriculum, the teaching process, the learners and the diversity of their backgrounds and how it can affect their learning process. Discussion Decisions Professionalism and Ethics ‘Teacher professionalism’ has played a significant role in improving the quality of student learning in Australian schools (Preston, 1993, p. 5). Whitton, Barker, Nosworthy, Sinclair & Nanlohy (2010, pp. 49-60), divided the standards of teaching into six categories: academic – formal academic qualifications needed to become a teacher; ethics – behaving ethically with the right conduct and practice; legal – total compliance with child protection requirements, laws on working with children and duty of care; professional – lifelong learning and professional development by reading, research or study; personal – appropriate personal presentation and personal development; and cultural – accepting and respecting all cultures and everyone in the school community. Teachers need to make decisions on h... ...ards-based instruction (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Preston, B. (1993). Teacher professionalism: Implications for teachers, teacher educators and democratic schooling. Independent Education 23(4), 4-12. Retrieved from http://edocs.library.curtin.edu.au/eres_display.cgi?url=dc60261746.pdf ©right=1 University of Tasmania. (2010). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs pyramid. Retrieved April 19, 2011, from http://www.ruralhealth.utas.edu.au/comm-lead/leadership/maslow-diagram.htm Wesley, D. C., (1998). Eleven ways to be a great teacher. Educational Leadership 55(5), 80-81. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com.dbgw.lis.curtin.edu.au/pqdweb?did=26126116&sid=1&Fmt=6&clientId=22212&RQT=309&VName=PQD&cfc=1 Whitton, D., Barker, K., Nosworthy, Sinclair, C., & Nanlohy, P. (2010). Learning for teaching: Teaching for learning. South Melbourne: Cengage Learning.